{"id":904239,"date":"2025-04-16T16:29:36","date_gmt":"2025-04-16T22:29:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.myconstructionexpert.com\/blog\/?p=904239"},"modified":"2025-04-16T16:29:39","modified_gmt":"2025-04-16T22:29:39","slug":"expert-witness-what-constitutes-bias","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.myconstructionexpert.com\/blog\/expert-witness-what-constitutes-bias\/","title":{"rendered":"What Constitutes\u00a0Bias\u00a0in an Expert Witness?"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/expert-evidence.com\/what-constitutes-bias-in-an-expert-witness\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Expert Evidence LTD<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.myconstructionexpert.com\/blog\/credibility-of-expert-witness-based-on-objectivity\/\">Who does an expert witness owe a duty to?<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This is probably the most important aspect of an <a href=\"http:\/\/www.adviseandconsult.net\/experts.php\">expert\u2019s work<\/a>. His duty is to the court and he has to maintain his independence at all times. This has been enshrined in the court rules in many parts of the world.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p><strong>Nothing is a waste of time if you use experience wisely.\u201d<\/strong>&nbsp;Auguste Rodin<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>Originally the duties of an expert were covered in a court case, which is now known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>. This was follows a judgement by\u00a0<strong>Mr. Justice Cresswell<\/strong>\u00a0in\u00a0<strong>National Justice Compania Naviera SA v Prudential Assurance Company Limited in 1993<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Since then various legal jurisdictions have produced detailed rules such as:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>English Civil<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov.uk\/courts\/procedure-rules\/civil\/rules\/part35\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Civil Procedure Rules Part 35<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov.uk\/courts\/procedure-rules\/civil\/rules\/part35\/pd_part35\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Practice Direction 35<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/experts-guidance-cjc-aug-2014-amended-dec-8.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Guidance for the instruction of experts in civil claims 2<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/experts-guidance-cjc-aug-2014-amended-dec-8.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">0<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/08\/experts-guidance-cjc-aug-2014-amended-dec-8.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">14<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>English Criminal<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov.uk\/courts\/procedure-rules\/criminal\/docs\/2015\/crim-proc-rules-2015-part-19.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Criminal Procedural Rules part 19<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Scotland<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 No formal rules but there is a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.lawscot.org.uk\/members\/business-support\/expert-witness\/expert-witness-code-of-practice\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Code of Practice<\/a>\u00a0and case law similar to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer<\/a>\u00a0principles.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Guernsey<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.guernseylegalresources.gg\/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=74583&amp;p=0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">The Evidence in Civil Proceedings (Guernsey and Alderney) Rules 2011<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ireland<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0confirmed in the Court of Appeal by the case of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.casemine.com\/judgement\/uk\/6372975b68ae7c3969ff9d2d\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Duffy v Brendan McGee and Anor [2022] IECA 254<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>The Netherlands<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.rechtspraak.nl\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/practice-direction-for-experts-in-dutch-civil-law-cases.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Practice direction for experts in Dutch civil law cases<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.rechtspraak.nl\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/Gedragscode-voor-gerechtelijk-deskundigen-in-civielrechtelijke-en-bestuursrechtelijke-zaken.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Administrative Matters (only in Dutch)<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.rechtspraak.nl\/SiteCollectionDocuments\/model-expert-opinion.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Model Expert\u2019s Opinion<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Switzerland<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.admin.ch\/ch\/e\/rs\/272\/a175.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Article 272 of Swiss Civil Procedure Code<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Europe<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Civil Litigation Guide (to be enacted) and published in 8 languages \u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/expert-evidence.com\/final-version-of-the-european-guide-for-legal-expertise-published\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Expert\u2019s European Guide for Legal Expertise including Code of Co<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/expert-evidence.com\/final-version-of-the-european-guide-for-legal-expertise-published\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">n<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/expert-evidence.com\/final-version-of-the-european-guide-for-legal-expertise-published\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">duct<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Council of Europe<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Human Rights and Rule of Law \u2013 European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (\u2018CEPEJ\u2019) \u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/wcd.coe.int\/ViewDoc.jsp?id=2278707&amp;Site=&amp;BackColorInternet=B9BDEE&amp;BackColorIntranet=FFCD4F&amp;BackColorLogged=FFC679#P368_33000\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Guidelines on the role of court-appointed experts in judicial proceedings of Council of Europe\u2019s Member States<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Australia<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.fedcourt.gov.au\/law-and-practice\/practice-documents\/practice-notes\/gpn-expt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Practice Notes for the Federal Court<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Canada<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0confirmed in the Supreme Court by the case of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/scc-csc.lexum.com\/scc-csc\/scc-csc\/en\/item\/15328\/index.do\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">White Burgess Langille Inman v. Abbott and Haliburton Co. [2015] 2 SCR 182\u00a0<\/a>and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ontario.ca\/laws\/regulation\/900194\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Rule 53.03 Code of Conduct for Expert of the Federal Court Rules<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.advocates.ca\/new\/advocacy-and-practice\/practice-directions.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">The Advocates\u2019 Society \u2013 Links to practice directions in all Canadian States for testifying experts<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>New Zealand<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0confirmed in the Supreme Court by the case of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.courtsofnz.govt.nz\/assets\/cases\/2022\/2022-NZSC-115.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ellis v R [2022] NZSC 115<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bermuda<\/strong>\u00a0uses the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0precedent.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Eastern Caribbean<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0confirmed in the Supreme Court High Court of Justice (Civil) by the case of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.eccourts.org\/judgment\/elton-scatliffe-et-al-v-dwite-flax-et-al\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Scatliffe and Scatliffe v Flax and Anor, Claim No. BVIHCV 2010\/0053, 26 October 2017<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Kenya<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.jspubs.com\/experts\/fs\/04.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Ikarian Reefer Rules<\/a>\u00a0confirmed in the High Court of Kenya by the case of .<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dubai<\/strong>\u00a0International Financial Centre (\u2018DIFC\u2019)\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.difccourts.ae\/rules-decisions\/rules\/part-31\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Rules part 31<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.difccourts.ae\/rules-decisions\/rules\/schedule-part-31\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Schedule<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Hong Kong<\/strong>\u00a0uses the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.elegislation.gov.hk\/hk\/cap4A@2018-02-01T00:00:00\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Rules of the High Court<\/a>\u00a0precedent.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Singapore<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.sg\/new-rules-of-court-2021\/digest-1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">General Overview Digest 1<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.sg\/news-and-resources\/practice-directions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Practice Directions Index<\/a>;\u00a0<strong>High Court, Rules of Court<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/sso.agc.gov.sg\/SL-Supp\/S914-2021\/Published\/20211201?ProvIds=P11-PO12-pr1-,P11-PO12-pr2-,P11-PO12-pr3-,P11-PO12-pr4-,P11-PO12-pr5-,P11-PO12-pr6-,P11-PO12-pr7-\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Evidence Act \u2013 Order 12<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/epd-supcourt-2021.opendoc.gov.sg\/downloads\/Appendix_B\/SUPCT_new%20PDs%20(Appendix%20B%20-%20Form%207).pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Appendix A \u2013 Form 12<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/epd-supcourt-2021.opendoc.gov.sg\/downloads\/Appendix_B\/SUPCT_new%20PDs%20(Appendix%20B%20-%20Form%207).pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Practice Direction \u2013 Appendix B\/7<\/a>;\u00a0<strong>Singapore International Commercial Court (\u2018SICC\u2019)<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/sso.agc.gov.sg\/SL\/SCJA1969-S924-2021?DocDate=20211202&amp;ProvIds=PO14-#PO14-\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Evidence Act \u2013 Order 14<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.judiciary.gov.sg\/docs\/default-source\/amendments-docs\/2022\/sicc-pd_2022_v1.pdf?sfvrsn=4d986e38_2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">SICC PD Part Xiii paragraphs 87 to 90<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>US<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/rules\/frcp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 26<\/a>\u00a0and also by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/rules\/fre\/rule_706\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 706<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>There are also some places that still have no rules, but in such cases it then becomes common to adopt the rules from a known jurisdiction, usually the English ones and then reinforce with their own judgements to make it part of common law.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Biases may be conscious and unconscious. An expert\u2019s partiality may be implicated for the following reasons:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Failure to disclose previous correspondence with either party including private or business relationships that are external from the dispute at hand. This is usually a form of conscious bias.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>An expert that alters his or her view throughout the case and is swayed by the opinion of other experts.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Experts may even be challenged on the methodology that they use to arrive at their conclusions. Whilst this form of bias is usually unconscious, it merely suggests that an expert\u2019s evidence will not stand up against conflicting evidence or testing and is generally perceived as flawed by their intellectual community. In the United States the terminology used for an expert that is challenged on these grounds is a Daubert challenge, but courts elsewhere may use different nomenclature.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Court recommended measures for mitigating expert bias include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Probative questions during cross-examination, an expert\u2019s opinions should be able to stand up to the questions of other experts during this stage.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Concurrent expert evidence or \u2018hot-tubbing\u2019, a method commonly used in Australia; is a discussion chaired by a judge, whereby the various experts, and the judge engage in a co-operative endeavour to identify the issues of the case and arrive where possible at a common resolution of them. Due to the fact that throughout this process the experts are autonomous from their clients, but moreover responding to the judge, their duty to the court is upheld. The other great benefit of concurrent evidence or \u2018hot-tubbing\u2019 is that experts are able to respond directly to one another. In complex intellectual fields, where technical points may be disputed this helps to reduce the margin for bias within methodologies, as experts can clearly discuss why one methodology should be favoured over another.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Please do not expect an expert to support the case irrespective of the facts, it will avoid disappointment. Although he will not be part of the legal team who is arguing for a litigation party \u2013 he is probably a really asset if he is used correctly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p>When one of your cases is in need of a construction expert, estimates, insurance appraisal or umpire services in defect or insurance disputes &#8211; please call Advise &amp; Consult, Inc. at 888.684.8305, or email <a href=\"mailto:experts@adviseandconsult.net\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">experts@adviseandconsult.net<\/a>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Expert Evidence LTD Who does an expert witness owe a duty to? This is probably the most important aspect of an expert\u2019s work. His duty is to the court and he has to maintain his independence at all times. This has been enshrined in the court rules in many parts of the world. Nothing is&hellip; <a class=\"more-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.myconstructionexpert.com\/blog\/expert-witness-what-constitutes-bias\/\">Continue reading <span class=\"screen-reader-text\">What Constitutes\u00a0Bias\u00a0in an Expert Witness?<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","enabled":false},"version":2}},"categories":[7],"tags":[9895,17],"class_list":["post-904239","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-expert-witness","tag-advise-consult","tag-expert-witness-2","entry"],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v25.0 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>What Constitutes\u00a0Bias\u00a0in an Expert Witness? - Advise &amp; Consult, Inc.<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Who does an expert witness owe a duty to? 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